Mead's Guide to Signals on Linux (and Unix-like Systems)

Overview

Question: What is a signal?

Answer: Simply put, it's a way in which a process can be notified of an event. Usually, one process notifies (signals) another process, although a process can signal itself. We can say that one process sends a signal to another process or say that one process signals another process. They mean the same thing.

We've all seen these notifications before. In a desktop environment, if some event has occurred that the user should be aware of, a message may appear on the screen. Usually, this is in the lower right corner of the desktop. A notification may happen because a file has finished downloading, a user has appeared on Skype, or maybe a security update is available for installation.

There are many kinds of signals that can be sent to a process. If you've ever run a program from the command line, you may have used a signal to terminate it. Maybe you are writing a program and you accidentally cause an infinite loop. The way you terminate it is by pressing Ctrl-C. This key combination is actually sending a signal (SIGINT, meaning interrupt) to the runaway process. The default behavior when a process receives a SIGINT signal is to terminate.

To see a list of all signals, type kill -l at the command line. (That's a lowercase 'L')

 1) SIGHUP         2) SIGINT         3) SIGQUIT        4) SIGILL         5) SIGTRAP
 6) SIGABRT        7) SIGBUS         8) SIGFPE         9) SIGKILL       10) SIGUSR1
11) SIGSEGV       12) SIGUSR2       13) SIGPIPE       14) SIGALRM       15) SIGTERM
16) SIGSTKFLT     17) SIGCHLD       18) SIGCONT       19) SIGSTOP       20) SIGTSTP
21) SIGTTIN       22) SIGTTOU       23) SIGURG        24) SIGXCPU       25) SIGXFSZ
26) SIGVTALRM     27) SIGPROF       28) SIGWINCH      29) SIGIO         30) SIGPWR
31) SIGSYS        34) SIGRTMIN      35) SIGRTMIN+1    36) SIGRTMIN+2    37) SIGRTMIN+3
38) SIGRTMIN+4    39) SIGRTMIN+5    40) SIGRTMIN+6    41) SIGRTMIN+7    42) SIGRTMIN+8
43) SIGRTMIN+9    44) SIGRTMIN+10   45) SIGRTMIN+11   46) SIGRTMIN+12   47) SIGRTMIN+13
48) SIGRTMIN+14   49) SIGRTMIN+15   50) SIGRTMAX-14   51) SIGRTMAX-13   52) SIGRTMAX-12
53) SIGRTMAX-11   54) SIGRTMAX-10   55) SIGRTMAX-9    56) SIGRTMAX-8    57) SIGRTMAX-7
58) SIGRTMAX-6    59) SIGRTMAX-5    60) SIGRTMAX-4    61) SIGRTMAX-3    62) SIGRTMAX-2
63) SIGRTMAX-1    64) SIGRTMAX

For a more detailed list of signals and their meanings, look here. Here are some of the more common signals:

Name Default behavior Meaning

SIGINT Terminate Interrupt

SIGTERM Terminate Terminate

SIGKILL Terminate Kill

SIGSTOP Stop Stop executing, if running

SIGCONT Continue Continue executing, if stopped

Name	Default behavior	Meaning
`SIGINT`	Terminate	Interrupt
`SIGTERM`	Terminate	Terminate
`SIGKILL`	Terminate	Kill
`SIGSTOP`	Stop	Stop executing, if running
`SIGCONT`	Continue	Continue executing, if stopped

There are values associated with the signal names, but they are implementation dependent, meaning each system may use different values. Because of this, you should always use the name of the signal, which is more portable.

Simple Example

For this first example, we'll write a program that runs in an infinite loop. We'll send a SIGINT signal to the process by pressing Ctrl-C in the terminal. By default, this signal will terminate the process. Next, we'll see how we can ignore that signal.

The program: (infinte-loop.c)

int main(void)
{
  while (1)
  {
  }  

  return 0;
}

Yep, this will work! (Well, work is a stretch here.) But, it does what we want: It will run forever, or until we terminate it from outside of the process. Compile the code:

gcc infinite-loop.c -o infinite-loop

and run it:

./infinite-loop

Of course, nothing seems to be happening, but it is happily looping doing nothing. To terminate it, press Ctrl-C. The shell (in the terminal) sent a SIGINT to the process. You'll also see ^C printed in the terminal. You can also use the kill or killall program to send any signal to a process. (The name kill is really a misnomer from the olden-days, as the program doesn't necessarily kill any process. A better name would have been signal or send-signal, since that's really what it does.)

To use these, while the process is running, open up another terminal (the current one is busy running the infinite loop) and type:

killall -SIGINT infinite-loop

This will terminate the process. Actually, this will send a SIGINT to all processes named infinite-loop. So, be careful using this if you are trying to signal a process that has the same name as other processes. The kill command requires you to specify the process ID (PID), which is unique among all processes. So, for example, if our infinite-loop process has a PID of 12345, you would use kill like this:

kill -SIGINT 12345

Since the program does not contain any code to ignore or handle the signal, the process is terminated. This is the default behavior of the interrupt signal. In fact, most signals that are received by a process will terminate the process unless the process does something to prevent that.

OK, let's fix the program so that if we receive an interrupt signal (SIGINT), we can ignore it and continue looping. There are two steps that must be taken to handle the signal. The first thing to do is to register or install a signal handler. This is done with the signal function. Here's the prototype:

void (*signal(int signum, void (*func )(int)))(int);

This says that signal is "a function that takes two parameters and returns a pointer to a function that takes an integer and returns a void pointer; the first parameter is an integer and the second is a pointer to a function and that function takes an integer and returns a void pointer". Duh. To make this easier to read and understand, a typedef helps:

typedef void (*sighandler_t)(int);
sighandler_t signal(int signum, sighandler_t handler);

This says that sighandler_t is "a pointer to a function that takes an integer and returns a void pointer". Then, signal is "a function that takes an integer and a sighandler_t and returns a sighandler_t". Fortunately, calling this function is much simpler than writing its prototype!

So, essentially what we are passing to the signal function is an integer that represents the signal that we wish to handle and a pointer to a function (callback) that will be called when the signal arrives. We typically call that function a signal handler.

Here's the modified code:

#include <signal.h> /* signal, signal defines */
#include <stdio.h>  /* printf                 */

/* This function will be called when a SIGINT arrives */
void sighandler(int sig)
{
  printf("I'm ignoring you!\n");
}

int main(void)
{
    /* Install signal handler */
  signal(SIGINT, sighandler);

  while (1)
  {
  }  

  return 0;
}

Now, compile this and run it. It's still in an infinite loop, but if you press Ctrl-C in the terminal, all you see is: (I pressed Ctrl-C 3 times)

^CI'm ignoring you!
^CI'm ignoring you!
^CI'm ignoring you!

If you use the killall program to send the same signal, you'll see this: (I ran it 3 times)

I'm ignoring you!
I'm ignoring you!
I'm ignoring you!

It's the shell that puts the ^C characters on the screen.

Nice! We've prevented our program from being terminated with Ctrl-C. BUT... it's still running! How do we stop it now?!?! In the terminal press Ctrl-\ (That's the control + backslash keys.) You'll see this:

^\Quit

Of course, just like with any system call, you want to check for any errors. This is the proper way to install the signal handler (check the return value):

#include <signal.h> /* signal, signal defines */
#include <stdio.h>  /* printf                 */

void sighandler(int sig)
{
  printf("I'm ignoring you!\n");
}

int main(void)
{
    /* Install signal handler */
  if (signal(SIGINT, sighandler) == SIG_ERR)
  {
    printf("Error installing signal handler.\n");
    return 1;
  }

  while (1)
  {
  }  

  return 0;
}

You'll also notice that the signal hander, sighandler, takes an integer (the signal number) as a parameter, yet it is ignored here. The reason the signal number is passed in is because we might want one function to handle more than one signal. You could write one function per signal that you wish to handle, but if the logic is similar or very simple, one function might be fine.

This example handles both SIGINT and SIGQUIT

#include <signal.h> /* signal, signal defines */
#include <stdio.h>  /* printf                 */

void sighandler(int sig)
{
  if (sig == SIGINT)
    printf("I'm ignoring you!\n");
  else if (sig == SIGQUIT)
    printf("I mean it! I'm ignoring you!\n");
}

int main(void)
{
    /* Install signal handler for SIGINT */
  if (signal(SIGINT, sighandler) == SIG_ERR)
  {
    printf("Error installing signal handler.\n");
    return 1;
  }

    /* Install signal handler for SIGQUIT */
  if (signal(SIGQUIT, sighandler) == SIG_ERR)
  {
    printf("Error installing signal handler.\n");
    return 2;
  }

  while (1)
  {
  }  

  return 0;
}

Now pressing Ctrl-C then Ctrl-\ produces this:

^CI'm ignoring you!
^\I mean it! I'm ignoring you!

We've handled both. BUT... Now how do we kill it!?!?! You have to send it a SIGKILL signal:

killall -SIGKILL infinite-loop

And, before you ask, no, you can't handle or ignore a SIGKILL. Attempting to register a handler for that signal will return SIG_ERR to your program. There are only two signals that you can't handle. One is SIGKILL and the other is SIGSTOP. Deal with it.

Another Example

This example is a little more like something you'd do in the Real World^™. It's a long running program (could run for hours or days or weeks or longer) and doesn't print anything out until it completes. Suppose we want to "check in" on the program from time to time to see how it's progressing? One way to check-in would be by sending it a signal when we want it to print something out to the display.

As usual, the program itself is not very interesting, but the way we interact with it is interesting. This program calculates the approximate value of pi using a series. (Leibniz's formula for pi.)


1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + 1/9 - ... = pi/4

The more numbers in the series, the better the approximation. Of course, this is an infinite series and will never actually reach that value. But this is perfect for our test.

You may have noticed in the list of signals there are these two: SIGUSR1 and SIGUSR2. These are user-defined signals, meaning you can use them for whatever you like in your programs. We're going to use SIGUSR1 for our code.

Here's the program: (pi-sig.c)

#include <signal.h> /* signal, signal defines */
#include <stdio.h>  /* printf                 */
#include <unistd.h> /* getpid                 */

double pi_current = 0.0;
unsigned long it_current = 0;

void sighandler(int sig)
{
    /* Really don't need to check as we only handle this signal */
  if (sig == SIGUSR1)
    printf("Current iteration: %lu, pi is %.16f\n", it_current, pi_current);
}

double leibniz_pi(unsigned long iterations)
{
  double quarterPI = 0.0;
  unsigned long i;
  int sign = -1;

  for (i = 0; i < iterations; i++)
  {
    sign *= -1;
    quarterPI += sign / (2.0 * i + 1);

      /* Update the global vars so the signal handler can print them */
    pi_current = 4 * quarterPI;
    it_current = i;
  }

  return 4 * quarterPI;
}

int main(void)
{
  unsigned long count = 1000 * 1000 * 1000 * 64ul;
  double pi;
  
    /* Install signal handler */
  if (signal(SIGUSR1, sighandler) == SIG_ERR)
  {
    printf("Error installing signal handler.\n");
    return 1;
  }
  
  printf("PID: %i\n", getpid());
  pi = leibniz_pi(count);
  printf("iterations: %lu, pi is %.16f\n", count, pi);

  return 0;
}

It's pretty self-explanatory, but I'll point out a few things.

The program is only handling the SIGUSR1 signal, and that handler was setup.
The leibniz_pi function is the long-running function that will loop for a long time.
The number of iterations is an unsigned long, which is 8 bytes in a 64-bit system. This allows us to use very large numbers and cause the program to run for years!
We have two global variables so that the signal handler can print out the values of the current iteration and the current value of pi, which are calculated inside of the leibniz_pi function.

There's another point to be made. There is no way to tell exactly when the signal will arrive. When it does arrive, our currently executing code will be paused so that the signal handling function can execute. When the signal handler is done, execution will resume where it left off.

What that means for this program is that, when the SIGUSR1 signal arrives, we will be in the middle of the loop executing some instruction. That instruction will be paused. The signal handler will execute, printing out the two values we are interested in and then return. The instruction that was executing in the loop will then be resumed as if nothing interrupted it.

Compile and run this program:

gcc pi-sig.c -o pi-sig
./pi-sig

Nothing will appear on the screen. From another terminal, send it the signal:

killall -SIGUSR1 pi-sig

Here's the output when I ran it. I ran the killall command 5 times before letting it complete:

PID: 9198
Current iteration: 108411881, pi is 3.1415926443653865
Current iteration: 147297472, pi is 3.1415926603778059
Current iteration: 178823842, pi is 3.1415926479967675
Current iteration: 210190824, pi is 3.1415926583470455
Current iteration: 246275480, pi is 3.1415926576496456
iterations: 64000000000, pi is 3.1415926535728813

On my system, this took about 12.5 minutes to execute the loop 64,000,000,000 (64 billion) times. The largest unsigned long is 18,446,744,073,709,551,615. My back-of-the-envelope calculation tells me it would take about 6,800 years to complete with that number! Of course, this assumes that I don't have to reboot during that time. Even Linux would struggle maintaining that kind of uptime!

Convenient signaling

It may seem a little inconvenient to have to open another shell and use the kill or killall programs to get the long-running program to print something out. Well, we can simplify things. Instead of having the program respond to the SIGUSR1 signal, we can just have it respond to the SIGINT signal that is sent when you press Ctrl-C in the shell. Just add this code in main after the first signal handler is installed:

  /* Install signal handler for SIGINT */
if (signal(SIGINT, sighandler) == SIG_ERR)
{
  printf("Error installing signal handler.\n");
  return 1;
}

Then, in the signal handler function, have it check for SIGINT as well:

void sighandler(int sig)
{
    /* Really don't need to check as we only handle these two signals */
  if (sig == SIGUSR1 || sig == SIGINT)
    printf("Current iteration: %lu, pi is %.16f\n", it_current, pi_current);
}

Now, you can just press Ctrl-C in the shell to see the progress:

PID: 30544
^CCurrent iteration: 876738924, pi is 3.1415926547287345
^CCurrent iteration: 1638731632, pi is 3.1415926541982557
^CCurrent iteration: 2726090911, pi is 3.1415926532215415
^\Quit

I pressed Ctrl-C 3 times, and then pressed Ctrl-\ to terminate it, since Ctrl-C will no longer terminate the program. (The ^C and ^\Quit are printed by the shell.)

Keep this technique in mind when you have long-running programs that you want to "check in" on periodically and don't want them constantly spewing output to the terminal. However, you still want to make it easy for the user to terminate the program via another key (such as Ctrl-\), otherwise they might get upset if they can't easily terminate the program!

More Details

The examples above were merely a very simple introduction to signals. A few points must be made regarding signal handling.

First, at the most basic level, the signal function just updates the disposition of signals. In other words, it keeps track of which signals to handle within our code. By default, a program doesn't handle any of them, and so the default behavior occurs (which usually means terminate the process.)

Information about signals for a process is stored in the process control block (PCB). Here's a snippet of it showing some of the members related to signal processing:

struct task_struct {

  /* hundreds of lines removed ... */

  int exit_code, exit_signal;
  int pdeath_signal;  /*  The signal sent when the parent dies  */
  /* signal handlers */
  struct signal_struct *signal;
  struct sighand_struct *sighand;

  sigset_t blocked, real_blocked;
  sigset_t saved_sigmask; /* restored if set_restore_sigmask() was used */
  struct sigpending pending;

  sigset_t *notifier_mask;
  siginfo_t *last_siginfo; /* For ptrace use.  */

  /* hundreds of lines removed ... */
};

The return value from signal is the previous disposition of the signal. If you want to revert the disposition (e.g. you don't wish to handle it anymore), you would save this return value and use it in another call to signal, which would put things back the way they were. (I'm not going to go any further into that but you can use the links below to find out more about this.)

Some notes about the signal handling function:

The signal handling function should be very short. Remember, the rest of the program is stopped while the signal handler is executing.

The signal handling function must be careful not to call unsafe functions. In the code above, printf is NOT safe. In fact, most functions in stdio.h are unsafe. However, for this simple demonstration, it will work fine. For a list of signal-safe functions, look here. Essentially, unsafe means it is not reentrant.

The signal handling function should be careful not to cause unwanted side-effects, e.g. altering the value of the global errno variable or other global variables.
You may have noticed this in the signal man page:
The behavior of signal() varies across UNIX versions, and has also varied historically across different versions of Linux. Avoid its use: use sigaction(2) instead.
In Linux, the signal function is just a convenient wrapper around sigaction. Again, for this very simple introduction, using signal works just fine. We'll look at sigaction next.

A brief look at sigaction:

The sigaction function is more flexible and portable than the signal function, which is why it should be used instead of signal. But, that flexibility comes with more complexity as you'll see. This is the prototype for sigaction:

int sigaction(int signum, const struct sigaction *act, struct sigaction *oldact);

The function has 3 parameters:

signum - This is the signal to manipulate and it's the same as the signal function.
act - This structure contains the function to call, as well as additional information about how the signal handling proceeds.
oldact - This structure contains the previous disposition of the signal. This was the return value from signal.

This is what the sigaction structure looks like:

struct sigaction
{
  void (*sa_handler)(int);
  void (*sa_sigaction)(int, siginfo_t *, void *);
  sigset_t sa_mask;
  int sa_flags;
  void (*sa_restorer)(void);
};

The only member that we are interested in is the first one, which is the function pointer for the signal handling function. Here's the modified version of the infinite loop code from above: (infinite-loop2.c)

#include <signal.h> /* sigaction, signal defines */
#include <stdio.h>  /* printf                    */

void sighandler(int sig)
{
  if (sig == SIGINT)
    printf("I'm ignoring you!\n");
  else if (sig == SIGQUIT)
    printf("I mean it! I'm ignoring you!\n");
}

int main(void)
{
  struct sigaction act;

  sigemptyset(&act.sa_mask);   /* clear   */
  act.sa_flags = 0;            /* clear   */
  act.sa_handler = sighandler; /* handler */

    /* Install signal handler */
  if (sigaction(SIGINT, &act, NULL) == -1)
  {
    perror("Error installing signal handler for SIGINT");
    return 1;
  }

    /* Install signal handler */
  if (sigaction(SIGQUIT, &act, NULL) == -1)
  {
    perror("Error installing signal handler for SIGQUIT");
    return 2;
  }

  while (1)
  {
  }  

  return 0;
}

Since I'm not interested in doing anything fancy with this introduction, the only portion of the structure that needs to be set to something useful is the function pointer. Again, if you want to explore the rest of the options, follow the links at the bottom of the page.

Other Issues

Recall our long-running program previously shown. When compiled like this:

gcc pi-sig.c -o pi-sig

It took about 12.5 minutes to complete. If we want to enable optimizations, compile like this:

gcc -O2 pi-sig.c -o pi-sigo

That's an UPPERCASE letter 'O' (not zero). With these optimizations, the program completed in only 10.5 minutes. That's a pretty decent speedup that the compiler gave us by optimizing our code. But, there's a problem. If I run the program and then send it a SIGUSR1 signal, this is what is printed out: (I sent it 3 times)

Current iteration: 0, pi is 0.0000000000000000
Current iteration: 0, pi is 0.0000000000000000
Current iteration: 0, pi is 0.0000000000000000

What's going on here?!? You will not be able to figure this out by looking at the C code. You have to look at the assembly code that the compiler generated. I don't expect anyone to fully understand all of this (I don't), but you should be able to follow the explanation below. (I've highlighted the relevant lines.)

No optimization	With optimization (-O2)
leibniz_pi: .LFB1: pushq %rbp movq %rsp, %rbp movq %rdi, -40(%rbp) movl $0, %eax movq %rax, -16(%rbp) movl $-1, -20(%rbp) movq $0, -8(%rbp) jmp .L4 .L7: negl -20(%rbp) cvtsi2sd -20(%rbp), %xmm1 movq -8(%rbp), %rax testq %rax, %rax js .L5 cvtsi2sdq %rax, %xmm0 jmp .L6 .L5: movq %rax, %rdx shrq %rdx andl $1, %eax orq %rax, %rdx cvtsi2sdq %rdx, %xmm0 addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 .L6: addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 movsd .LC2(%rip), %xmm2 addsd %xmm2, %xmm0 divsd %xmm0, %xmm1 movapd %xmm1, %xmm0 movsd -16(%rbp), %xmm1 addsd %xmm1, %xmm0 movsd %xmm0, -16(%rbp) movsd -16(%rbp), %xmm1 movsd .LC3(%rip), %xmm0 mulsd %xmm1, %xmm0 movsd %xmm0, pi_current(%rip) movq -8(%rbp), %rax movq %rax, it_current(%rip) addq $1, -8(%rbp) .L4: movq -8(%rbp), %rax cmpq -40(%rbp), %rax jb .L7 movsd -16(%rbp), %xmm1 movsd .LC3(%rip), %xmm0 mulsd %xmm1, %xmm0 movsd %xmm0, -48(%rbp) movq -48(%rbp), %rax movq %rax, -48(%rbp) movsd -48(%rbp), %xmm0 popq %rbp ret	leibniz_pi: .LFB39: testq %rdi, %rdi je .L11 movl $-1, %edx xorl %eax, %eax xorpd %xmm1, %xmm1 movsd .LC2(%rip), %xmm4 movsd .LC3(%rip), %xmm3 jmp .L10 .p2align 4,,10 .p2align 3 .L13: cvtsi2sdq %rax, %xmm0 .L8: addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 addq $1, %rax cmpq %rdi, %rax addsd %xmm4, %xmm0 divsd %xmm0, %xmm2 addsd %xmm2, %xmm1 movapd %xmm1, %xmm0 mulsd %xmm3, %xmm0 je .L12 .L10: negl %edx testq %rax, %rax cvtsi2sd %edx, %xmm2 jns .L13 movq %rax, %rcx movq %rax, %rsi shrq %rcx andl $1, %esi orq %rsi, %rcx cvtsi2sdq %rcx, %xmm0 addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 jmp .L8 .p2align 4,,10 .p2align 3 .L12: subq $1, %rax movsd %xmm0, pi_current(%rip) movq %rax, it_current(%rip) ret .L11: xorpd %xmm0, %xmm0 ret

No optimization

With optimization (-O2)

leibniz_pi:
.LFB1:
	pushq	%rbp
	movq	%rsp, %rbp
	movq	%rdi, -40(%rbp)
	movl	$0, %eax
	movq	%rax, -16(%rbp)
	movl	$-1, -20(%rbp)
	movq	$0, -8(%rbp)
	jmp	.L4
.L7:
	negl	-20(%rbp)
	cvtsi2sd	-20(%rbp), %xmm1
	movq	-8(%rbp), %rax
	testq	%rax, %rax
	js	.L5
	cvtsi2sdq	%rax, %xmm0
	jmp	.L6
.L5:
	movq	%rax, %rdx
	shrq	%rdx
	andl	$1, %eax
	orq	%rax, %rdx
	cvtsi2sdq	%rdx, %xmm0
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
.L6:
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	movsd	.LC2(%rip), %xmm2
	addsd	%xmm2, %xmm0
	divsd	%xmm0, %xmm1
	movapd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	movsd	-16(%rbp), %xmm1
	addsd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	movsd	%xmm0, -16(%rbp)
	movsd	-16(%rbp), %xmm1
	movsd	.LC3(%rip), %xmm0
	mulsd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	movsd	%xmm0, pi_current(%rip)
	movq	-8(%rbp), %rax
	movq	%rax, it_current(%rip)
	addq	$1, -8(%rbp)
.L4:
	movq	-8(%rbp), %rax
	cmpq	-40(%rbp), %rax
	jb	.L7
	movsd	-16(%rbp), %xmm1
	movsd	.LC3(%rip), %xmm0
	mulsd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	movsd	%xmm0, -48(%rbp)
	movq	-48(%rbp), %rax
	movq	%rax, -48(%rbp)
	movsd	-48(%rbp), %xmm0
	popq	%rbp
	ret

leibniz_pi:
.LFB39:
	testq	%rdi, %rdi
	je	.L11
	movl	$-1, %edx
	xorl	%eax, %eax
	xorpd	%xmm1, %xmm1
	movsd	.LC2(%rip), %xmm4
	movsd	.LC3(%rip), %xmm3
	jmp	.L10
	.p2align 4,,10
	.p2align 3
.L13:
	cvtsi2sdq	%rax, %xmm0
.L8:
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	addq	$1, %rax
	cmpq	%rdi, %rax
	addsd	%xmm4, %xmm0
	divsd	%xmm0, %xmm2
	addsd	%xmm2, %xmm1
	movapd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	mulsd	%xmm3, %xmm0
	je	.L12
.L10:
	negl	%edx
	testq	%rax, %rax
	cvtsi2sd	%edx, %xmm2
	jns	.L13
	movq	%rax, %rcx
	movq	%rax, %rsi
	shrq	%rcx
	andl	$1, %esi
	orq	%rsi, %rcx
	cvtsi2sdq	%rcx, %xmm0
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	jmp	.L8
	.p2align 4,,10
	.p2align 3
.L12:
	subq	$1, %rax
	movsd	%xmm0, pi_current(%rip)
	movq	%rax, it_current(%rip)
	ret
.L11:
	xorpd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	ret

I'm only showing the code for the leibniz_pi function, as that's where the problem is. This is the loop (C code) from that function:

for (i = 0; i < iterations; i++)
{
  sign *= -1;
  quarterPI += sign / (2.0 * i + 1);

    /* Update the global vars so the signal handler can print them */
  pi_current = 4 * quarterPI;
  it_current = i;
}

Without compiler options enabled, the compiler will pretty much translate our C code into assembly without making any modifications (optimizations). It's more like "What you code is what you get." (WYCIWYG) However, the compiler can be pretty smart sometimes (much smarter than a programmer) and it realizes when you are doing useless extra work. Specifically, this:

    /* Update the global vars so the signal handler can print them */
  pi_current = 4 * quarterPI;
  it_current = i;

The compiler sees that you assign to both of those variables inside the loop, yet you never use those values inside the loop. So, the compiler thinks this is a waste of time and moves the assignments outside of the loop. This way, only the final values are written just once, saving time. That's an optimization. The end result is the same, except that it runs faster than before.

BUT, the results are NOT the same! This is because the compiler has no way of knowing that a signal can cause the program to pause the loop, jump to another function, and then come back. As far as the compiler is concerned, there's no way any other part of the program can use these variables until the leibniz_pi function returns.

So, what do we do now? Disable optimizations? That's unacceptable. Fortunately, the C programming language had expected things like this and has just what we need to handle this exact situation. There is a keyword, volatile, that tells the compiler, "Hey, these variables may be accessed/modified by code outside of what you're looking at so don't do anything that might change the expected results."

This is trivial to fix. Just modify the declarations by adding the volatile keyword:

volatile double pi_current = 0.0;
volatile unsigned long it_current = 0;

Now, compile (with optimizations) and run the code. It's all working again!

Oh, and in case you're wondering, using the volatile keyword did not cause the program to run slower. The rest of the optimizations are still in effect, just not the ones on those variables. Here's the optimized version with the volatile keyword in place. The assignments are moved back inside the loop:

With optimization (-O2) and volatile
leibniz_pi: .LFB39: testq %rdi, %rdi je .L10 movl $-1, %edx xorl %eax, %eax xorpd %xmm1, %xmm1 movsd .LC2(%rip), %xmm4 movsd .LC3(%rip), %xmm3 jmp .L9 .p2align 4,,10 .p2align 3 .L13: cvtsi2sdq %rax, %xmm0 .L8: addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 addsd %xmm4, %xmm0 divsd %xmm0, %xmm2 addsd %xmm2, %xmm1 movapd %xmm1, %xmm0 mulsd %xmm3, %xmm0 movsd %xmm0, pi_current(%rip) movq %rax, it_current(%rip) addq $1, %rax cmpq %rdi, %rax je .L12 .L9: negl %edx testq %rax, %rax cvtsi2sd %edx, %xmm2 jns .L13 movq %rax, %rcx movq %rax, %rsi shrq %rcx andl $1, %esi orq %rsi, %rcx cvtsi2sdq %rcx, %xmm0 addsd %xmm0, %xmm0 jmp .L8 .p2align 4,,10 .p2align 3 .L12: rep ret .L10: xorpd %xmm0, %xmm0 ret

With optimization (-O2) and volatile

leibniz_pi:
.LFB39:
	testq	%rdi, %rdi
	je	.L10
	movl	$-1, %edx
	xorl	%eax, %eax
	xorpd	%xmm1, %xmm1
	movsd	.LC2(%rip), %xmm4
	movsd	.LC3(%rip), %xmm3
	jmp	.L9
	.p2align 4,,10
	.p2align 3
.L13:
	cvtsi2sdq	%rax, %xmm0
.L8:
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	addsd	%xmm4, %xmm0
	divsd	%xmm0, %xmm2
	addsd	%xmm2, %xmm1
	movapd	%xmm1, %xmm0
	mulsd	%xmm3, %xmm0
	movsd	%xmm0, pi_current(%rip)
	movq	%rax, it_current(%rip)
	addq	$1, %rax
	cmpq	%rdi, %rax
	je	.L12
.L9:
	negl	%edx
	testq	%rax, %rax
	cvtsi2sd	%edx, %xmm2
	jns	.L13
	movq	%rax, %rcx
	movq	%rax, %rsi
	shrq	%rcx
	andl	$1, %esi
	orq	%rsi, %rcx
	cvtsi2sdq	%rcx, %xmm0
	addsd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	jmp	.L8
	.p2align 4,,10
	.p2align 3
.L12:
	rep ret
.L10:
	xorpd	%xmm0, %xmm0
	ret

Yes, this is a trivial fix, but I wasted a good hour on this trying to figure out why all of a sudden nothing seemed to be working. I originally compiled without optimizations, as is normal during development, and then enabled them without realizing it. Once I realized the problem was coming from the compiler optimization, I immediately knew what was wrong. We don't teach beginning programmers about the volatile keyword because it's really only used in moderately advanced programs and beginners are no where near that stage. The same thing can happen in multithreaded programs, as well.

The reason I even show this is because some of you will try this code and you will compile with optimizations and it will fail and you will NOT have any clue as to what's wrong!

"Anyone can learn from his mistakes, but a wise man learns from other people's mistakes."

Learn from mine. You're welcome!

References

This was just an introduction to using signals on Linux. There are a lot more details that you may want to read about. These links are a good place to start:

The signal man page. (man 2 signal)
An overview of signals man page. (man 7 signal)
References for the kill and killall programs.
Unix signals from wikipedia.

Mead Approved:

The definitive reference for Linux programming is this book:

The Linux Programming Interface: A Linux and UNIX System Programming Handbook. It is one of the highest-rated Linux books listed on Amazon. Highly recommended for anyone wanting to understand more about Linux systems programming.